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Serial killer

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the term. For other uses, see <a href="Serial_killer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Serial killer (disambiguation)">Serial killer (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

Note: Varies by <a href="Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdiction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a></li>

<li><a href="Attempted_murder" title="Attempted murder">Attempted murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Child_murder" title="Child murder">Child murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensual_homicide" title="Consensual homicide">Consensual homicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Contract_killing" title="Contract killing">Contract killing</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_of_passion" title="Crime of passion">Crime of passion</a></li>

<li><a href="Depraved-heart_murder" title="Depraved-heart murder">Depraved-heart murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">Felony murder rule</a></li>

<li><a href="Foeticide" title="Foeticide">Foeticide</a></li>

<li><a href="Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Child_cannibalism" title="Child cannibalism">Child cannibalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">Human sacrifice</a>

<ul><li><a href="Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">Child sacrifice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Internet_homicide" title="Internet homicide">Internet homicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Lonely_hearts_killer" title="Lonely hearts killer">Lonely hearts killer</a></li>

<li><a href="Lust_murder" title="Lust murder">Lust murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">Mass murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_shooting" title="Mass shooting">Mass shooting</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_stabbing" title="Mass stabbing">Mass stabbing</a></li>

<li><a href="Misdemeanor_murder" title="Misdemeanor murder">Misdemeanor murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Murder_for_body_parts" title="Murder for body parts">Murder for body parts</a></li>

<li><a href="Murder%E2%80%93suicide" title="Murder–suicide">Murder–suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Poisoning" title="Poisoning">Poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Proxy_murder" title="Proxy murder">Proxy murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudocommando" title="Pseudocommando">Pseudocommando</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Angel_of_mercy_(criminology)" title="Angel of mercy (criminology)">Angel of mercy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Spree_killer" title="Spree killer">Spree killer</a></li>

<li><a href="Thrill_killing" title="Thrill killing">Thrill killing</a></li>

<li><a href="Torture_murder" title="Torture murder">Torture murder</a></li>

<li><a href="Vehicle-ramming_attack" title="Vehicle-ramming attack">Vehicle-ramming attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Wrongful_execution" title="Wrongful execution">Wrongful execution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Judicial_murder" title="Judicial murder">Judicial murder</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Manslaughter_in_English_law" title="Manslaughter in English law">In English law</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_manslaughter" title="Voluntary manslaughter">Voluntary manslaughter</a></li>

<li><a href="Negligent_homicide" title="Negligent homicide">Negligent homicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Reckless_homicide" title="Reckless homicide">Reckless homicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Vehicular_homicide" title="Vehicular homicide">Vehicular homicide</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Non-criminal homicide</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

Note: Varies by <a href="Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdiction</a>

<li><a href="Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">Assisted suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Foeticide" title="Foeticide">Foeticide</a></li>

<li><a href="Justifiable_homicide" title="Justifiable homicide">Justifiable homicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Licence_to_kill_(concept)" title="Licence to kill (concept)">"License to kill"</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Family</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Avunculicide" class="mw-redirect" title="Avunculicide">Avunculicide/Nepoticide</a></li>

<li><a href="Familicide" title="Familicide">Familicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Mariticide" title="Mariticide">Mariticide</a></li>

<li><a href="Uxoricide" title="Uxoricide">Uxoricide</a></li>

<li>Prolicide

<ul><li><a href="Filicide" title="Filicide">Filicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Infanticide" title="Infanticide">Infanticide</a></li>

<li><a href="Neonaticide" title="Neonaticide">Neonaticide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Siblicide" title="Siblicide">Siblicide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fratricide" title="Fratricide">Fratricide</a></li>

<li><a href="Sororicide" title="Sororicide">Sororicide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Parricide" title="Parricide">Parricide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Matricide" title="Matricide">Matricide</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricide" title="Patricide">Patricide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Senicide" title="Senicide">Senicide</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">Crucifixion</a></li>

<li><a href="Deicide" title="Deicide">Deicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li>

<li><a href="Friendly_fire" title="Friendly fire">Friendly fire</a></li>

<li><a href="Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Omnicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoning" title="Stoning">Stoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Suspicious_death" title="Suspicious death">Suspicious death</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyrannicide" title="Tyrannicide">Tyrannicide</a></li>

<li><a href="War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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A serial killer (also called a serial murderer) is an individual who <a href="Murder" title="Murder">murders</a> three or more people,<a href="#cite_note-Most_common-1">[1]</a> with the killings taking place over a period of more than one month in three or more separate events.<a href="#cite_note-Most_common-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Their psychological <a href="Gratification" title="Gratification">gratification</a> is the <a href="Motive_(law)" title="Motive (law)">motivation</a> for the killings, and many serial murders involve sexual contact with the victims at different points during the murder process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeberth1995?_"The_base_population_was_387_serial_murderers,_who_killed_(under_various_motivations),_three_or_more_persons_over_a_period_of_time_with_cooling-off_periods_between_the_events._The_author_identified_232_male_serial_murderers_who_violated_their_victims_sexually"_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeberth1995?_"The_base_population_was_387_serial_murderers,_who_killed_(under_various_motivations),_three_or_more_persons_over_a_period_of_time_with_cooling-off_periods_between_the_events._The_author_identified_232_male_serial_murderers_who_violated_their_victims_sexually"-3">[3]</a> The <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI) states that the motives of serial killers can include <a href="Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="Thrill_killing" title="Thrill killing">thrill-seeking</a>, <a href="Attention_seeking" title="Attention seeking">attention seeking</a>, and financial gain, and killings may be <a href="Modus_operandi" title="Modus operandi">executed as such</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton20054,_9-4">[4]</a> The victims tend to have things in common, such as <a href="Demographic_profile" title="Demographic profile">demographic profile</a>, appearance, gender, or <a href="Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tick-5">[5]</a> As a group, serial killers suffer from a variety of <a href="Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">personality disorders</a>. Most are often not adjudicated as insane under the law.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Although a serial killer is a distinct classification that differs from that of a <a href="Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murderer</a>, <a href="Spree_killer" title="Spree killer">spree killer</a>, or <a href="Contract_killing" title="Contract killing">contract killer</a>, there are overlaps between them.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definition">Etymology and definition</h2></div>

The English term and concept of serial killer are commonly attributed to former <a href="Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> <a href="Special_agent" title="Special agent">special agent</a> <a href="Robert_Ressler" title="Robert Ressler">Robert Ressler</a>, who used the term serial homicide in 1974 in a lecture at Police Staff College, in <a href="Bramshill" title="Bramshill">Bramshill</a>, <a href="Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>, England.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Author <a href="Ann_Rule" title="Ann Rule">Ann Rule</a> postulates in her 2004 book Kiss Me, Kill Me, that the English-language credit for coining the term goes to <a href="Los_Angeles_Police_Department" title="Los Angeles Police Department">Los Angeles Police Department</a> <a href="Detective" title="Detective">detective</a> Pierce Brooks, who created the <a href="Violent_Criminal_Apprehension_Program" title="Violent Criminal Apprehension Program">Violent Criminal Apprehension Program</a> (ViCAP) system in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERule2004225-8">[8]</a>

The German term and concept were coined by criminologist <a href="Ernst_Gennat" title="Ernst Gennat">Ernst Gennat</a>, who described <a href="Peter_K%C3%BCrten" title="Peter Kürten">Peter Kürten</a> as a Serienmörder ('serial-murderer') in his article "Die Düsseldorfer Sexualverbrechen" (1930).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGennat19307,_27–32,_49–54,_79–82-9">[9]</a> In his book, <a href="Serial_Killers%3A_The_Method_and_Madness_of_Monsters" title="Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters">Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters</a> (2004), criminal justice historian <a href="Peter_Vronsky" title="Peter Vronsky">Peter Vronsky</a> notes that while Ressler might have coined the English term "serial homicide" within the law in 1974, the terms serial murder and serial murderer appear in <a href="John_Brophy_(writer)" title="John Brophy (writer)">John Brophy</a>'s book The Meaning of Murder (1966).<a href="#cite_note-=Vronsky-10">[10]</a> The Washington, D.C., newspaper <a href="The_Washington_Star" title="The Washington Star">Evening Star</a>, in a 1967 review of the book:<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">There is the mass murderer, or what he [Brophy] calls the "serial" killer, who may be actuated by greed, such as insurance, or retention or growth of power, like the <a href="House_of_Medici" title="House of Medici">Medicis</a> of Renaissance Italy, or <a href="Henri_D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Landru" title="Henri Désiré Landru">Landru</a>, the "<a href="Bluebeard" title="Bluebeard">bluebeard</a>" of the World War I period, who murdered numerous wives after taking their money.</blockquote>

Vronsky states that the term serial killing first entered into broader American popular usage when published in <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> in early 1981, to describe Atlanta serial killer <a href="Wayne_Williams" title="Wayne Williams">Wayne Williams</a>. Subsequently, throughout the 1980s, the term was used again in the pages of The New York Times, one of the major national news publications of the United States, on 233 occasions. By the end of the 1990s, the use of the term had increased to 2,514 instances in the paper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky2013-12">[12]</a>

When defining serial killers, researchers generally use "three or more murders" as the baseline,<a href="#cite_note-Most_common-1">[1]</a> considering it sufficient to provide a pattern without being overly restrictive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetherick2005190-13">[13]</a> Independent of the number of murders, they need to have been committed at different times, and are usually committed in different places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlowers2012195-14">[14]</a> The lack of a cooling-off period (a significant break between the murders) marks the difference between a <a href="Spree_killer" title="Spree killer">spree killer</a> and a serial killer. The category has, however, been found to be of no real value to law enforcement, because of definitional problems relating to the concept of a "cooling-off period."<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a> Cases of extended bouts of sequential killings over periods of weeks or months with no apparent "cooling off period" or "return to normality" have caused some experts to suggest a hybrid category of "spree-serial killer".<a href="#cite_note-=Vronsky-10">[10]</a>

In Controversial Issues in Criminology, Fuller and Hickey write that "[t]he element of time involved between murderous acts is primary in the differentiation of serial, mass, and spree murderers", later elaborating that spree killers "will engage in the killing acts for days or weeks" while the "methods of murder and types of victims vary". <a href="Andrew_Cunanan" title="Andrew Cunanan">Andrew Cunanan</a> is given as an example of spree killing, while <a href="Charles_Whitman" title="Charles Whitman">Charles Whitman</a> is mentioned in connection with mass murder, and <a href="Jeffrey_Dahmer" title="Jeffrey Dahmer">Jeffrey Dahmer</a> with serial killing.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

In 2005, the FBI hosted a multi-disciplinary symposium in San Antonio, Texas, which brought together 135 experts on serial murder from a variety of fields and specialties with the goal of identifying the commonalities of knowledge regarding serial murder. The group also settled on a definition of serial murder which FBI investigators widely accept as their standard: "The unlawful killing of two or more victims by the same offender(s) in separate events".<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a> Serial homicide researcher Enzo Yaksic found that the FBI was justified in lowering the victim threshold from three to two victims given that serial murderers from these groups share similar pathologies.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_serial_killers_before_1900" title="List of serial killers before 1900">List of serial killers before 1900</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_accounts">Early accounts</h3></div>

Historical <a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">criminologists</a> suggest that there have been serial killers throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-Waller2011-19">[19]</a> Some sources suggest that legends such as <a href="Werewolf" title="Werewolf">werewolves</a> and <a href="Vampire" title="Vampire">vampires</a> were inspired by <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger20005-20">[20]</a> In Africa, there have been periodic outbreaks of murder by <a href="Leopard_Society" title="Leopard Society">leopard men</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<a href="Liu_Pengli" title="Liu Pengli">Liu Pengli</a> of China, nephew of the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> Emperor <a href="Emperor_Jing_of_Han" title="Emperor Jing of Han">Jing</a>, was made Prince of Jidong in the sixth year of the middle period of Jing's reign (144 BC). According to the Chinese historian <a href="Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>, he would "go out on marauding expeditions with 20 or 30 <a href="Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a> or with young men who were in hiding from the law, murdering people and seizing their belongings for sheer sport". Although many of his subjects knew about these murders, it was not until the 29th year of his reign that the son of one of his victims finally sent a report to the emperor. Eventually, it was discovered that he had murdered at least 100 people. The officials of the court requested that Liu Pengli be executed; however, the emperor could not bear to have his own nephew killed, so Liu Pengli was made a commoner and banished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian1993387-22">[22]</a>

In the 9th century (year 257 of the Islamic Calendar), "a strangler from Baghdad was apprehended. He had murdered a number of women and buried them in the house where he was living."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inside_and_outside_the_United_States">Inside and outside the United States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_serial_killers_by_country" title="List of serial killers by country">List of serial killers by country</a></div>

The majority of documented serial killers were active in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton200695-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibson2014-25">[25]</a> In one study of serial homicide in South Africa, many patterns were similar to established patterns in the U.S., with some exceptions: no offenders were female, offenders were lower educated than in the U.S., and both victims and offenders were predominantly black.<a href="#cite_note-South_Africa-26">[26]</a>

In the 15th century, one of the wealthiest men in Europe and a former companion-in-arms of <a href="Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a>, <a href="Gilles_de_Rais" title="Gilles de Rais">Gilles de Rais</a>, was alleged to have <a href="Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexually assaulted</a> and killed peasant children, mainly boys, whom he had abducted from the surrounding villages and had taken to his castle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200445–48-27">[27]</a> It is estimated that his victims numbered between 140 and 800.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200447-28">[28]</a> Similarly, the <a href="Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungarian</a> aristocrat <a href="Elizabeth_B%C3%A1thory" title="Elizabeth Báthory">Elizabeth Báthory</a>, born into one of the wealthiest families in <a href="Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, allegedly <a href="Torture" title="Torture">tortured</a> and killed as many as 650 girls and young women before her arrest in 1610.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200778-29">[29]</a>

Between 1564 and 1589, German farmer <a href="Peter_Stumpp" title="Peter Stumpp">Peter Stumpp</a> killed 14 children, including his own son. He also murdered two pregnant women and had an incestuous relationship with his daughter. Stumpp claimed to have been granted the ability to turn into a werewolf by the Devil. As punishment for his crimes, Stumpp was put on a torture wheel and executed. His head was later severed and put on a pole next to the figure of a wolf to scare other people away from claiming themselves werewolves too.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

Members of the <a href="Thuggee" title="Thuggee">Thuggee</a> cult in India may have murdered a million people between 1740 and 1840.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinstein200482–83-31">[31]</a> <a href="Thug_Behram" title="Thug Behram">Thug Behram</a>, a member of the cult, may have murdered as many as 931 victims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton2006117-32">[32]</a> In his 1886 book, <a href="Psychopathia_Sexualis_(Richard_von_Krafft-Ebing_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychopathia Sexualis (Richard von Krafft-Ebing book)">Psychopathia Sexualis</a>, psychiatrist <a href="Richard_von_Krafft-Ebing" title="Richard von Krafft-Ebing">Richard von Krafft-Ebing</a> noted a case of a serial murderer in the 1870s, a <a href="France" title="France">Frenchman</a> named Eusebius Pieydagnelle who had a sexual obsession with blood and confessed to murdering six people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorderVanderlindenBegg2004-33">[33]</a>

The unidentified killer <a href="Jack_the_Ripper" title="Jack the Ripper">Jack the Ripper</a>, who has been called the first modern serial killer,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="Whitechapel_murders" title="Whitechapel murders">killed at least five women</a>, and possibly more,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> in London in 1888. He was the subject of a massive manhunt and investigation by the <a href="Metropolitan_Police" title="Metropolitan Police">Metropolitan Police</a>, during which many modern criminal investigation techniques were pioneered. A large team of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries, forensic material was collected and suspects were identified and traced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanter199412–13-36">[36]</a> Police surgeon <a href="Thomas_Bond_(British_physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Bond (British physician)">Thomas Bond</a> assembled one of the earliest <a href="Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">character profiles of the offender</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanter19945–6-37">[37]</a>

The Ripper murders also marked an important watershed in the treatment of crime by journalists.<a href="#cite_note-Davenport-Hines_2004-38">[38]</a> While not the first serial killer in history, Jack the Ripper's case was the first to create a worldwide media frenzy.<a href="#cite_note-Davenport-Hines_2004-38">[38]</a> The dramatic murders of financially destitute women in the midst of the wealth of London focused the media's attention on the plight of the urban poor and gained coverage worldwide. Jack the Ripper has also been called the most infamous serial killer of all time, and his legend has spawned hundreds of <a href="Jack_the_Ripper_suspects" title="Jack the Ripper suspects">theories on his real identity</a> and <a href="Jack_the_Ripper_in_fiction" title="Jack the Ripper in fiction">many works of fiction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Trutv.com.com-39">[39]</a>

<a href="H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a> was a serial killer in the United States, responsible for the death of at least nine victims in the early 1890s. The case was one of the first involving a serial murderer that gained widespread notoriety and publicity through sensationalized accounts in <a href="William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">William Randolph Hearst</a>'s newspapers. However, at the same time of the Holmes case, in France, <a href="Joseph_Vacher" title="Joseph Vacher">Joseph Vacher</a> became known as "The French Ripper" after killing and mutilating 11 women and children. He was executed in 1898 after confessing to his crimes.<a href="#cite_note-TRutv.com.com-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

Another notable non-American serial killer is <a href="Pedro_L%C3%B3pez_(serial_killer)" title="Pedro López (serial killer)">Pedro Lopez</a>, a murderer from South America, who killed a minimum of 110 young girls between 1969 and 1980. However, he claims that the number is over 300. He was released from a mental facility in 1998 and his whereabouts are still unknown. He is commonly nicknamed the "Monster of the Andes". An additional non-American serial killer is <a href="Luis_Garavito" title="Luis Garavito">Luis Garavito</a> from Colombia. Garavito would kill and torture boys using various disguises. He murdered around 140 boys ranging in ages from 8 to 16. He would dump his victims' bodies in mass graves.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h3></div>

The serial killing phenomenon in the United States was especially prominent from 1970 to 2000, which has been described as the "golden age of serial murder".<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The cause of the spike in serial killings has been attributed to <a href="Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, which put people in close proximity and offered anonymity.<a href="#cite_note-u884-44">[44]</a> The number of active serial killers in the United States peaked in 1989 and has been steadily trending downward since, coinciding with an overall decrease in <a href="Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">crime in the United States</a> since that time. The decline in serial killers has no known single cause but is attributed to a number of factors.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="Mike_Aamodt" title="Mike Aamodt">Mike Aamodt</a>, emeritus professor at Radford University in Virginia, attributes the decline in number of serial killings to less frequent use of <a href="Parole" title="Parole">parole</a>, improved <a href="Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic technology</a>, and people behaving more cautiously.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Causes for the general reduction in violent crime following the 1990s include increased <a href="Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration in the United States</a>, the end of the <a href="Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">crack epidemic in the United States</a>, and decreased <a href="Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead exposure</a> in early childhood.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div>

Some commonly found characteristics of serial killers include the following:

<ul><li>They may exhibit varying degrees of <a href="Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> or <a href="Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopathy</a>, which may contribute to their homicidal behavior.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<ul><li>For example, someone who is mentally ill may have <a href="Psychotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic">psychotic</a> breaks that cause them to believe they are another person or are compelled to murder by other entities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartolBartol2004145-51">[51]</a></li>

<li>Psychopathic behavior that is consistent with traits common to some serial killers include sensation seeking, a lack of <a href="Remorse" title="Remorse">remorse</a> or <a href="Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a>, <a href="Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a>, the need for control, and predatory behavior.<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a> <a href="Psychopaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychopaths">Psychopaths</a> can seem 'normal' and often quite <a href="Superficial_charm" title="Superficial charm">charming</a>, a state of adaptation that <a href="Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">psychiatrist</a> <a href="Hervey_M._Cleckley" title="Hervey M. Cleckley">Hervey Cleckley</a> called the "<a href="The_Mask_of_Sanity" title="The Mask of Sanity">mask of sanity</a>".<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Serial killers may be more likely to engage in <a href="Sexual_fetishism" title="Sexual fetishism">fetishism</a>, <a href="Partialism" title="Partialism">partialism</a> or <a href="Necrophilia" title="Necrophilia">necrophilia</a>, which are <a href="Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">paraphilias</a> that involve a strong tendency to experience the object of erotic interest almost as if it were a physical representation of the symbolized body. Individuals engage in paraphilias which are organized along a continuum; participating in varying levels of fantasy perhaps by focusing on body parts (partialism), symbolic objects which serve as physical extensions of the body (fetishism), or the anatomical physicality of the human body; specifically regarding its inner parts and sexual organs (one example being necrophilia).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilvaLeongFerrari2004794-53">[53]</a></li>

<li>A disproportionate number exhibit <a href="Macdonald_triad" title="Macdonald triad">Macdonald triad</a> predictors of future violent behavior:

<ul><li>Many are fascinated with <a href="Pyromania" title="Pyromania">fire setting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tick-5">[5]</a></li>

<li>They are involved in <a href="Sadomasochism" title="Sadomasochism">sadistic</a> activity; especially in children who have not reached sexual maturity, this activity may take the form of <a href="Zoosadism" title="Zoosadism">torturing animals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tick-5">[5]</a></li>

<li>More than 60 percent, or simply a large proportion, <a href="Enuresis" title="Enuresis">wet their beds</a> beyond the age of 12.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingerHensley200448,_461–476-54">[54]</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Some were involved in petty crimes, such as fraud, theft, <a href="Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalism</a>, or similar offenses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2007131–133-55">[55]</a></li>

<li>Often, they have trouble staying employed and tend to work in menial jobs. The FBI, however, states, "Serial murderers often seem normal; have families and/or a steady job."<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a></li>

<li>Studies have suggested that serial killers generally have an average or low-average <a href="Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQ</a>, although they are often described, and perceived, as possessing IQs in the above-average range.<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Root-56">[56]</a> A sample of 202 IQs of serial killers had a median IQ of 89.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Some organized serial killers have a slightly higher IQ score averaging a little bit over 99, where disorganized killers average just under 93 in theirs. The average IQ of serial killers is 94.7.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></li></ul>

There are exceptions to these criteria, however. For example, <a href="Harold_Shipman" title="Harold Shipman">Harold Shipman</a> was a successful professional (a <a href="General_Practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="General Practitioner">General Practitioner</a> working for the <a href="National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">NHS</a>). He was considered a pillar of the local community; he even won a professional award for a children's asthma clinic and was interviewed by <a href="Granada_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Granada Television">Granada Television</a>'s <a href="World_in_Action" title="World in Action">World in Action</a> on <a href="ITV_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="ITV (TV channel)">ITV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <a href="Dennis_Nilsen" title="Dennis Nilsen">Dennis Nilsen</a> was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no previous criminal record when arrested. Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell-tale signs.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="Vlado_Taneski" title="Vlado Taneski">Vlado Taneski</a>, a crime reporter, was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="Russell_Williams_(criminal)" title="Russell Williams (criminal)">Russell Williams</a> was a successful and respected career <a href="Royal_Canadian_Air_Force" title="Royal Canadian Air Force">Royal Canadian Air Force</a> Colonel who was convicted of murdering two women, along with fetish burglaries and rapes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMellor2012-62">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3></div>

Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development.<a href="#cite_note-PlotnikKouyoumdjian2010-63">[63]</a> Hickey's Trauma Control Model explains how early childhood trauma can set the child up for <a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behavior</a> in adulthood; the child's environment (either their parents or society) is the dominant factor determining whether or not the child's behavior escalates into homicidal activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes2000107-64">[64]</a>

Family, or lack thereof, is the most prominent part of a child's development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETithecott199738-65">[65]</a> "The serial killer is no different from any other individual who is instigated to seek approval from parents, sexual partners, or others."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHale199341-66">[66]</a> This need for approval is what influences children to attempt to develop social relationships with their family and peers. "The quality of their attachments to parents and other members of the family is critical to how these children relate to and value other members of society."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasselt1999162-67">[67]</a>

Wilson and Seaman (1990) conducted a study on incarcerated serial killers, and what they concluded was the most influential factor that contributed to their homicidal activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilsonSeaman1992-68">[68]</a> Almost all of the serial killers in the study had experienced some sort of environmental problems during their childhood, such as a broken home caused by divorce, or a lack of a parental figure to discipline the child. Nearly half of the serial killers had experienced some type of physical or sexual abuse, and more of them had experienced emotional neglect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasselt1999162-67">[67]</a>

When a parent has a drug or <a href="Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> problem, the attention in the household is on the parents rather than the child. This neglect of the child leads to the lowering of their self-esteem and helps develop a fantasy world in which they are in control. Hickey's Trauma Control Model supports how parental neglect can facilitate deviant behavior, especially if the child sees substance abuse in action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010107-69">[69]</a> This then leads to <a href="Disposition" title="Disposition">disposition</a> (the inability to attach), which can further lead to homicidal behavior, unless the child finds a way to develop substantial relationships and fight the label they receive. If a child receives no support from anyone, then they are unlikely to recover from the <a href="Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">traumatic</a> event in a positive way. As stated by E. E. Maccoby, "the family has continued to be seen as a major—perhaps the major—arena for socialization".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaccoby19921006–1017-70">[70]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chromosomal_makeup">Chromosomal makeup</h4></div>

There have been studies looking into the possibility that an abnormality with one's <a href="Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> could be the trigger for serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Two serial killers, <a href="Bobby_Joe_Long" title="Bobby Joe Long">Bobby Joe Long</a> and <a href="Richard_Speck" title="Richard Speck">Richard Speck</a>, came to attention for reported chromosomal abnormalities. Long had an <a href="Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">extra X chromosome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-speckpt-72">[72]</a> Speck was erroneously reported to have an <a href="XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">extra Y chromosome</a>; in fact, his <a href="Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> was performed twice and was normal each time.<a href="#cite_note-Engel_1972-73">[73]</a> While attempts have been made to link the XYY karyotype to violence, including serial murder, research has consistently found little or no association between violent criminal behaviour and an extra Y chromosome.<a href="#cite_note-March_of_Dimes-74">[74]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fantasy">Fantasy</h4></div>

Children who do not have the <a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> to control the mistreatment they suffer sometimes create a new reality to which they can escape. This new reality becomes their <a href="Fantasy_(psychology)" title="Fantasy (psychology)">fantasy</a> that they have total control of and becomes part of their daily existence. In this fantasy world, their emotional development is guided and maintained. According to Garrison (1996), "the child becomes <a href="Psychopathy#Sociopathy" title="Psychopathy">sociopathic</a> because the normal development of the concepts of right and wrong and <a href="Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> towards others is retarded because the child's emotional and <a href="Social_change" title="Social change">social development</a> occurs within his self-centered fantasies. A person can do no wrong in his own world and the pain of others is of no consequence when the purpose of the fantasy world is to satisfy the needs of one person" (Garrison, 1996). Boundaries between fantasy and reality are lost and fantasies turn to dominance, control, sexual conquest, and violence, eventually leading to murder. Fantasy can lead to the first step in the process of a dissociative state, which, in the words of Stephen Giannangelo, "allows the serial killer to leave the stream of consciousness for what is, to him, a better place".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiannangelo199633-75">[75]</a>

Criminologist Jose Sanchez reports, "The young criminal you see today is more detached from his victim, more ready to hurt or kill. The lack of empathy for their victims among young criminals is just one symptom of a problem that afflicts the whole society."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETithecott199738-65">[65]</a> Lorenzo Carcaterra, author of Gangster (2001), explains how potential criminals are <a href="Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">labeled by society</a>, which can then lead to their offspring also developing in the same way through the <a href="Cycle_of_violence" title="Cycle of violence">cycle of violence</a>. The ability for serial killers to appreciate the mental life of others is severely compromised, presumably leading to their dehumanization of others.<a href="#cite_note-Silva-2004-76">[76]</a> This process may be considered an expression of the <a href="Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a> associated with a cognitive deficit regarding the capability to make sharp distinctions between other people and inanimate objects. For these individuals, objects can appear to possess animistic or humanistic power while people are perceived as objects.<a href="#cite_note-Silva-2004-76">[76]</a> Before he was executed, serial killer <a href="Ted_Bundy" title="Ted Bundy">Ted Bundy</a> stated media violence and pornography had stimulated and increased his need to commit homicide, although this statement was made during last-ditch efforts to appeal his death sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasselt1999162-67">[67]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organized,_disorganized,_and_mixed">Organized, disorganized, and mixed</h3></div>

In the 1970s and 1980s, FBI profilers instigated a simple division of serial killers into "organized" and "disorganized"; that is, those who plan their crimes, and those who act on impulse.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The FBI's <a href="Crime_Classification_Manual" title="Crime Classification Manual">Crime Classification Manual</a> now places serial killers into three categories: organized, disorganized, and mixed (i.e., offenders who exhibit organized and disorganized characteristics).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200499–100-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-PerperCina2010-79">[79]</a> Some killers descend from organized to disorganized as their killings continue,<a href="#cite_note-PeckDolch2001-80">[80]</a> as in the case of <a href="Decompensation" title="Decompensation">psychological decompensation</a> or overconfidence due to having evaded capture.

Organized serial killers often plan their crimes methodically, usually abducting victims, killing them in one place and disposing of them in another. They often lure the victims with ploys appealing to their sense of sympathy. Others specifically target prostitutes, who are likely to go voluntarily with a stranger. These killers maintain a high degree of control over the <a href="Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">crime scene</a> and usually have a solid knowledge of <a href="Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> that enables them to cover their tracks, such as burying the body or weighing it down and sinking it in a river. They follow their crimes in the news media carefully and often take pride in their actions as if it were all a grand project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993113-81">[81]</a>

Often, organized killers have social and other interpersonal skills sufficient to enable them to develop both personal and romantic relationships, friends and lovers and sometimes even attract and maintain a spouse and sustain a family including children. Among serial killers, those of this type are in the event of their capture most likely to be described by acquaintances as kind and unlikely to hurt anyone. <a href="Ted_Bundy" title="Ted Bundy">Ted Bundy</a> and <a href="John_Wayne_Gacy" title="John Wayne Gacy">John Wayne Gacy</a> are examples of organized serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993113-81">[81]</a> In general, the <a href="Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQs</a> of organized serial killers tend to be normal range, with a mean of 98.7.<a href="#cite_note-radfordfgcudb-82">[82]</a>

Disorganized serial killers are usually far more impulsive, often committing their murders with a random weapon available at the time, and usually do not attempt to hide the body. They are likely to be unemployed, a loner, or both, with very few friends. They often turn out to have a history of mental illness, and their <a href="Modus_operandi" title="Modus operandi">modus operandi</a> (M.O.) or lack thereof is often marked by excessive violence and sometimes <a href="Necrophilia" title="Necrophilia">necrophilia</a> or sexual violence.<a href="#cite_note-Serial_Killers-83">[83]</a> Disorganized serial killers have been found to have a lower mean IQ than organized serial killers, at 89.4. Mixed serial killers, with both organized and disorganized traits, have an average IQ of 100.9, but a low sample size.<a href="#cite_note-radfordfgcudb-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_professionals">Medical professionals</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Angel_of_mercy_(criminology)" title="Angel of mercy (criminology)">Angel of mercy (criminology)</a></div>

Some people with a pathological interest in the power of life and death tend to be attracted to medical professions or acquiring such a job.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> These kinds of killers are sometimes referred to as "angels of death"<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> or angels of mercy. Medical professionals will kill their patients for money, for a sense of sadistic pleasure, for a belief that they are "easing" the patient's pain, or simply "because they can".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes1998204-86">[86]</a> Perhaps the most prolific of these was the British doctor <a href="Harold_Shipman" title="Harold Shipman">Harold Shipman</a>. Another such killer was nurse <a href="Jane_Toppan" title="Jane Toppan">Jane Toppan</a>, who admitted during her murder trial that she was <a href="Lust_murder" title="Lust murder">sexually aroused by death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Lust_Kill-87">[87]</a> She would administer a drug mixture to patients she chose as her victims, lie in bed with them and hold them close to her body as they died.<a href="#cite_note-Female_Lust_Kill-87">[87]</a>

Another medical professional serial killer is <a href="Genene_Jones" title="Genene Jones">Genene Jones</a>. It is believed she killed 11 to 46 infants and children while working at Bexar County Medical Center Hospital in San Antonio, Texas, United States.<a href="#cite_note-biography.com-2012-88">[88]</a> She is currently serving a 99-year sentence for the murder of Chelsea McClellan and the attempted murder of Rolando Santos,<a href="#cite_note-biography.com-2012-88">[88]</a> and became eligible for parole in 2017 due to a law in Texas at the time of her sentencing to reduce <a href="Prison_overcrowding" title="Prison overcrowding">prison overcrowding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-biography.com-2012-88">[88]</a> A similar case occurred in Britain in 1991, where nurse <a href="Beverley_Allitt" title="Beverley Allitt">Beverley Allitt</a> killed four children at the hospital where she worked, attempted to kill three more, and injured a further six over the course of two months. A 21st-century example is Canadian nurse <a href="Elizabeth_Wettlaufer" title="Elizabeth Wettlaufer">Elizabeth Wettlaufer</a>, who murdered elderly patients in the nursing homes where she worked. William George Davis is another hospital nurse who was sentenced to death in Texas for the murder of four patients.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female">Female</h3></div>

Female serial killers are rare compared to their male counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-Kelleher_1998_12-91">[91]</a> Sources suggest that female serial killers represented less than one in every six known serial murderers in the United States between 1800 and 2004 (64 females from a total of 416 known offenders), or that around 15% of U.S. serial killers have been women, with a collective number of victims between 427 and 612.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The authors of Lethal Ladies, Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel, and Victoria B. Titterington, state that "the Justice Department indicated 36 female serial killers have been active over the course of the last century."<a href="#cite_note-Farrell-93">[93]</a> According to The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, there is evidence that 16% of all serial killers are women.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-94">[94]</a>

Michael D. Kelleher and C. L. Kelleher created several categories to describe female serial killers. They used the classifications of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/black_widow" class="extiw external" title="wikt:black widow">black widow</a>, <a href="Angel_of_mercy_(criminology)" title="Angel of mercy (criminology)">angel of death</a>, sexual predator, revenge, profit or crime, team killer, question of sanity, unexplained, and unsolved. In using these categories, they observed that most women fell into the categories of the black widow or team killer.<a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a> Although motivations for female serial killers can include attention seeking, addiction, or the result of psychopathological behavioral factors,<a href="#cite_note-concordia1-96">[96]</a> female serial killers are commonly categorized as murdering men for material gain, usually being emotionally close to their victims,<a href="#cite_note-Kelleher_1998_12-91">[91]</a> and generally needing to have a relationship with the victim,<a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a> hence the traditional cultural image of the "black widow".

The methods that female serial killers use for murder are frequently covert or low-profile, such as murder by poison (the preferred choice for killing).<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Other methods used by female serial killers include shootings (used by 20%), suffocation (16%), stabbing (11%), and drowning (5%).<a href="#cite_note-concordia1-96">[96]</a> They commit killings in specific places, such as their home or a health-care facility, or at different locations within the same city or state.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> A notable exception to the typical characteristics of female serial killers is <a href="Aileen_Wuornos" title="Aileen Wuornos">Aileen Wuornos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> who killed outdoors instead of at home, used a gun instead of poison, and killed strangers instead of friends or family.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> One "analysis of 86 female serial killers from the United States found that the victims tended to be spouses, children or the elderly".<a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a> Other studies indicate that since 1975, increasingly strangers are marginally the most preferred victim of female serial killers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200741-101">[101]</a> or that only 26% of female serial killers kill for material gain only.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010267-102">[102]</a> Sources state that each killer will have her own proclivities, needs and triggers.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson_1998_495–498-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a> A review of the published literature on female serial murder stated that "sexual or <a href="Sadistic_personality_disorder" title="Sadistic personality disorder">sadistic</a> motives are believed to be extremely rare in female serial murderers, and psychopathic traits and histories of childhood abuse have been consistently reported in these women."<a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a>

A study by Eric W. Hickey (2010) of 64 female serial killers in the United States indicated that sexual activity was one of several motives in 10% of the cases, enjoyment in 11% and control in 14% and that 51% of all U.S. female serial killers murdered at least one woman and 31% murdered at least one child.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010265-104">[104]</a> In other cases, women have been involved as an accomplice with a male serial killer as a part of a serial killing team.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson_1998_495–498-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frei-95">[95]</a> A 2015 study published in The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology found that the most common motive for female serial killers was for financial gain and almost 40% of them had experienced some sort of mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrisonMurphyHoBowers2015383–406-105">[105]</a>

<a href="Peter_Vronsky" title="Peter Vronsky">Peter Vronsky</a> in <a href="Female_Serial_Killers" class="mw-redirect" title="Female Serial Killers">Female Serial Killers</a> (2007) maintains that female serial killers today often kill for the same reason males do: as a means of expressing rage and control. He suggests that sometimes the theft of the victims' property by the female "black widow" type serial killer appears to be for material gain, but really is akin to a male serial killer's collecting of totems (souvenirs) from the victim as a way of exerting continued control over the victim and reliving it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky2007-106">[106]</a> By contrast, Hickey states that although popular perception sees "black widow" female serial killers as something of the <a href="Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> past, in his statistical study of female serial killer cases reported in the United States since 1826, approximately 75% occurred since 1950.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

<a href="Elizabeth_B%C3%A1thory" title="Elizabeth Báthory">Elizabeth Báthory</a> is sometimes cited as the most prolific female serial killer in all of history. Formally countess Elizabeth Báthory de Ecsed (Báthory Erzsébet in <a href="Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, August 7, 1560 – August 21, 1614), she was a countess from the <a href="B%C3%A1thory_family" title="Báthory family">Báthory family</a>. Before her husband's death, Elizabeth took great pleasure in torturing the staff, by jamming pins under the servant's fingernails or stripping servants and throwing them into the snow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYardleyWilson20151–26-108">[108]</a> After her husband's death, she and four collaborators were accused of torturing and killing hundreds of girls and young women, with one witness attributing to them over 600 victims, though the number for which they were convicted was 80. Elizabeth herself was neither tried nor convicted. In 1610, however, she was imprisoned in the Csejte Castle, where she remained bricked in a set of rooms until her death four years later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200773-109">[109]</a>

A 2010 article by Perri and Lichtenwald addressed some of the misconceptions concerning female criminality.<a href="#cite_note-Perri-110">[110]</a> In the article, Perri and Lichtenwald analyze the current research regarding female psychopathy, including case studies of female psychopathic killers featuring <a href="Munchausen_syndrome_by_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Munchausen syndrome by proxy">Munchausen syndrome by proxy</a>, cesarean section homicide, fraud detection homicide, female kill teams, and a female serial killer.<a href="#cite_note-Perri-110">[110]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Juvenile">Juvenile</h3></div>

Juvenile serial killers are rare. There are three main categories that juvenile serial killers can fit into: primary, maturing, and secondary killers. There have been studies done to compare and contrast these three groups and to discover similarities and differences between them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby2009-111">[111]</a> Although these types of serial killers are less common, oftentimes adult serial killers may make their debut at an early age and it can be an opportunity for researchers to study what factors brought about the behavior. While juvenile serial killers are rare, the youngest felon on death row is a juvenile serial killer named <a href="Harvey_Miguel_Robinson" title="Harvey Miguel Robinson">Harvey Miguel Robinson</a> who was 17 at the time of his crimes and 18 at the time of his arrest.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity_and_demographics_in_the_United_States">Ethnicity and demographics in the United States</h3></div>

There is a myth that most serial killers are white males.<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a> However, according to the FBI, based on percentages of the U.S. population, white males are not more likely than other races to be serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-fbi.gov-15">[15]</a> White males are actually greatly under-represented among serial killers in proportion to their overall numbers in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-y076-115">[115]</a> According to a 2016 study, since the year 2000, African Americans accounted for roughly 60% of all serial killers in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-y076-115">[115]</a>

<a href="Anthony_Walsh_(criminologist)" title="Anthony Walsh (criminologist)">Anthony Walsh</a> has said that non-white serial killers are often ignored by the mainstream media. According to his analysis, Black males were over-represented among serial killers by a factor of 2, yet media coverage at that time overwhelmingly focused on white male serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-t623-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh2005271–291-117">[117]</a> Walsh argues that the popular media ignores black serial killers because there is a fear of allegations of racism. This may enable black serial killers to operate more effectively, as their crimes do not get the same media attention as the crimes of non-black serial killers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh2005271–291-117">[117]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motives">Motives</h2></div>

The <a href="Motive_(law)" title="Motive (law)">motives</a> of serial killers are generally placed into four categories: visionary, mission-oriented, hedonistic, and power or control; however, the motives of any given killer may display considerable overlap among these categories.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visionary">Visionary</h3></div>

Visionary serial killers suffer from <a href="Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychotic</a> breaks with reality,<a href="#cite_note-Bonn2014c-119">[119]</a> sometimes believing they are another person or are compelled to murder by entities such as the <a href="Devil" title="Devil">Devil</a> or God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes199862-120">[120]</a> The two most common subgroups are "demon mandated" and "God mandated".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartolBartol2004145-51">[51]</a>

<a href="Herbert_Mullin" title="Herbert Mullin">Herbert Mullin</a> believed the American casualties in the <a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> were preventing California from experiencing <a href="San_Andreas_Fault#The_next_.22Big_One.22" title="San Andreas Fault">the Big One</a>. As the war wound down, Mullin claimed his father instructed him via <a href="Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a> to raise the number of "human sacrifices to nature" to delay a catastrophic earthquake that would plunge California into the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993146-121">[121]</a> <a href="David_Berkowitz" title="David Berkowitz">David Berkowitz</a> ("Son of Sam") may also be an example of a visionary serial killer, having claimed a demon transmitted orders through his neighbor's dog and instructed him to commit murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchechter2003291-122">[122]</a> Berkowitz later described those claims as a hoax, as originally concluded by psychiatrist David Abrahamsen.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mission-oriented">Mission-oriented</h3></div>

Mission-oriented killers typically justify their acts as "ridding the world" of certain types of people perceived as undesirable, such as the <a href="Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homeless</a>, <a href="Convict" title="Convict">ex-cons</a>, <a href="Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuals</a>, <a href="Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">drug users</a>, prostitutes, or people of different ethnicity or religion; however, they are generally not psychotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes199843-124">[124]</a> Some see themselves as attempting to change society, often to cure a societal ill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes2002112-125">[125]</a>

An example of a mission-oriented killer would be <a href="Joseph_Paul_Franklin" title="Joseph Paul Franklin">Joseph Paul Franklin</a>, an American <a href="White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> who exclusively targeted <a href="Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>, <a href="Multiracial_people" title="Multiracial people">biracial</a>, and African American individuals for the purpose of inciting a "<a href="Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">race war</a>".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="Saeed_Hanaei" title="Saeed Hanaei">Saeed Hanaei</a> was a serial killer convicted of murdering at least sixteen women in his native Iran, many of whom were sex workers. He reported his goal was to cleanse his city of "moral corruption" and that his mission was sanctioned by God.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hedonistic">Hedonistic</h3></div>

This type of serial killer seeks thrills and derives pleasure and satisfaction from killing, seeing people as expendable means to this goal. <a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic psychologists</a> have identified three subtypes of the hedonistic killer: "lust", "thrill", and "comfort".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartolBartol2004146-129">[129]</a>

Sex is the primary motive of lust killers, whether or not the victims are dead, and fantasy plays a large role in their killings.<a href="#cite_note-BartolBartol2008-130">[130]</a> Their sexual gratification depends on the amount of torture and <a href="Mutilation" title="Mutilation">mutilation</a> they perform on their victims. The sexual serial murderer has a psychological need to have absolute control, dominance, and power over their victims, and the infliction of torture, pain, and ultimately death is used in an attempt to fulfill their need.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersMcElroyBurtonRecoppa1993435–451-131">[131]</a> They usually use weapons that require close contact with the victims, such as knives or hands. As lust killers continue with their murders, the time between killings decreases or the required level of stimulation increases, sometimes both.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>

<a href="Kenneth_Bianchi" title="Kenneth Bianchi">Kenneth Bianchi</a>, one of the "<a href="Hillside_Strangler" title="Hillside Strangler">Hillside Stranglers</a>", murdered women and girls of different ages, races, and appearance because his sexual urges required different types of stimulation and increasing intensity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbert200410-11-133">[133]</a> <a href="Jeffrey_Dahmer" title="Jeffrey Dahmer">Jeffrey Dahmer</a> searched for his perfect fantasy lover—beautiful, submissive and eternal. As his desire increased, he experimented with drugs, alcohol, and exotic sex. His increasing need for stimulation was demonstrated by the dismemberment of victims, whose heads and genitals he preserved, and by his attempts to create a "living zombie" under his control (by pouring acid into a hole drilled into the victim's skull).<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a>

Dahmer once said, "Lust played a big part of it. Control and lust. Once it happened the first time, it just seemed like it had control of my life from there on in. The killing was just a means to an end. That was the least satisfactory part. I didn't enjoy doing that. That's why I tried to create living zombies with acid and the drill." He further elaborated on this, also saying, "I wanted to see if it was possible to make—again, it sounds really gross—uh, zombies, people that would not have a will of their own, but would follow my instructions without resistance. So after that, I started using the drilling technique."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCormick2003431-135">[135]</a> He experimented with <a href="Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> to "ensure his victims would always be a part of him".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbert200411-136">[136]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thrill">Thrill</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Thrill_killing" title="Thrill killing">Thrill killing</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Serial_offender_hunting_patterns" title="Serial offender hunting patterns">Serial offender hunting patterns</a></div>

The primary motive of a thrill killer is to induce pain or terror in their victims, which provides stimulation and excitement for the killer.<a href="#cite_note-BartolBartol2008-130">[130]</a> They seek the <a href="Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">adrenaline</a> rush provided by hunting and killing victims. Thrill killers murder only for the kill; usually, the attack is not prolonged, and there is no sexual aspect. Usually, the victims are strangers, although the killer may have followed them for a period of time. Thrill killers can abstain from killing for long periods of time and become more successful at killing as they refine their <a href="Modus_operandi" title="Modus operandi">murder methods</a>. Many attempt to commit the <a href="Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">perfect crime</a> and believe they will not be caught.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a>

<a href="Robert_Hansen" title="Robert Hansen">Robert Hansen</a> took his victims to a secluded area, where he would let them loose and then hunt and kill them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowardSmith20044-139">[139]</a> In one of his letters to <a href="San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a> newspapers in San Francisco, California, the <a href="Zodiac_Killer" title="Zodiac Killer">Zodiac Killer</a> wrote "[killing] gives me the most thrilling experience it is even better than getting your rocks off with a girl".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraysmith200754–55-140">[140]</a> <a href="Carl_Eugene_Watts" title="Carl Eugene Watts">Carl Watts</a> was described by a surviving victim as "excited and hyper and clappin' and just making noises like he was excited, that this was gonna be fun" during the 1982 attack.<a href="#cite_note-Cbs2004-141">[141]</a> Slashing, stabbing, hanging, drowning, asphyxiating, and strangling were among the ways Watts killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2006207–208-142">[142]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comfort_(profit)">Comfort (profit)</h4></div>

Material gain and a comfortable lifestyle are the primary motives of comfort killers.<a href="#cite_note-BartolBartol2012-143">[143]</a> Usually, the victims are family members and close acquaintances.<a href="#cite_note-BartolBartol2008-130">[130]</a> After a murder, a comfort killer will usually wait for a period of time before killing again to allow any suspicions by family or authorities to subside. They often use poison, most notably <a href="Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, to kill their victims. Female serial killers are often comfort killers, although not all comfort killers are female.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a>

<a href="Dorothea_Puente" title="Dorothea Puente">Dorothea Puente</a> killed her tenants for their <a href="Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a> checks and buried them in the backyard of her home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes200044-145">[145]</a> <a href="H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a> killed for insurance and business profits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes200043-146">[146]</a> Puente and Holmes had previous records of crimes such as theft, fraud, <a href="Debt" title="Debt">non-payment of debts</a>, <a href="Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a> and others of a similar nature. Dorothea Puente was finally arrested on a parole violation, having been on parole for a previous fraud conviction.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <a href="Contract_killing" title="Contract killing">Contract killers</a> ("hitmen") may exhibit similar characteristics of serial killers, but are generally not classified as such because of third-party killing objectives and detached financial and emotional incentives.<a href="#cite_note-Madjd-Sadjadi2013-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes19987-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-WilsonYardley2015-150">[150]</a> Nevertheless, there are occasionally individuals that are labeled as both a hitman and a serial killer.<a href="#cite_note-WilsonYardley2015a-151">[151]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power/control">Power/control</h3></div>

The main objective for this type of serial killer is to gain and exert power over their victim. Such killers are sometimes <a href="Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">abused as children</a>, leaving them with feelings of powerlessness and inadequacy as adults. Many power- or control-motivated killers <a href="Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexually abuse</a> their victims, but they differ from hedonistic killers in that rape is not motivated by lust (as it would be with a lust murder) but as simply another form of dominating the victim.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="Ted_Bundy" title="Ted Bundy">Ted Bundy</a> is an example of a power/control-oriented serial killer. He traveled around the United States seeking women to control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeckDolche2000255-153">[153]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media_influences">Media influences</h3></div>

Many serial killers claim that a violent culture influenced them to commit murders. During his final interview, <a href="Ted_Bundy" title="Ted Bundy">Ted Bundy</a> stated that <a href="Hardcore_pornography" title="Hardcore pornography">hardcore pornography</a> was responsible for his actions. Others idolise figures for their deeds or perceived <a href="Vigilante" class="mw-redirect" title="Vigilante">vigilante</a> justice, such as <a href="Peter_K%C3%BCrten" title="Peter Kürten">Peter Kürten</a>, who idolized <a href="Jack_the_Ripper" title="Jack the Ripper">Jack the Ripper</a>, or <a href="John_Wayne_Gacy" title="John Wayne Gacy">John Wayne Gacy</a> and <a href="Ed_Kemper" class="mw-redirect" title="Ed Kemper">Ed Kemper</a>, who both idolized the actor <a href="John_Wayne" title="John Wayne">John Wayne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tick-5">[5]</a>

Killers who have a strong desire for fame or to be renowned for their actions desire media attention as a way of validating and spreading their crimes; fear is also a component here, as some serial killers enjoy causing fear. An example is <a href="Dennis_Rader" title="Dennis Rader">Dennis Rader</a>, who sought attention from the press during his murder spree.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories">Theories</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biological_and_sociological">Biological and sociological</h4></div>

Theories for why certain people commit serial murder have been advanced. Some theorists believe the reasons are biological, suggesting serial killers are born, not made, and that their violent behavior is a result of abnormal brain activity. Holmes believes that "until a reliable sample can be obtained and tested, there is no scientific statement that can be made concerning the exact role of <a href="Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> as a determining factor of a serial killer personality."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes201055–56-155">[155]</a>

The "Fractured Identity Syndrome" (FIS) is a merging of <a href="Charles_Cooley" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Cooley">Charles Cooley</a>'s "<a href="Looking_glass_self" class="mw-redirect" title="Looking glass self">looking glass self</a>" and <a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a>'s "virtual" and "actual social identity" theories. The FIS suggests a social event, or series of events, during one's childhood results in a fracturing of the personality of the serial killer. The term "fracture" is defined as a small breakage of the personality which is often not visible to the outside world and is only felt by the killer.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a>

"Social Process Theory" has also been suggested as an explanation for serial murder. Social process theory states that offenders may turn to crime due to peer pressure, family and friends. Criminal behavior is a process of interaction with social institutions, in which everyone has the potential for criminal behavior. A lack of family structure and identity could also be a cause leading to serial murder traits. A child used as a scapegoat will be deprived of their capacity to feel guilt. Displaced anger could result in animal torture, as identified in the <a href="Macdonald_triad" title="Macdonald triad">Macdonald triad</a>, and a further lack of basic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausLindberg1999427–435-157">[157]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military">Military</h4></div>

The "military theory" has been proposed as an explanation for why serial murderers kill, as some serial murderers have served in the military or related fields. According to Castle and Hensley, 7% of the serial killers studied had military experience.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> This figure may be a proportional under-representation when compared to the number of military veterans in a nation's total population. For example, according to the United States census for the year 2000, military veterans comprised 12.7% of the U.S. population;<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> in England, it was estimated in 2007 that military veterans comprised 9.1% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodheadSloggettBrayBradbury200950–54-160">[160]</a> Though by contrast, about 2.5% of the population of Canada in 2006 consisted of military veterans.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a>

There are two theories that can be used to study the correlation between serial killing and military training: Applied learning theory states that serial killing can be learned. The military is training for higher kill rates from servicemen while training the soldiers to be desensitized to taking a human life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastleHensley2002-163">[163]</a> Social learning theory can be used when soldiers get praised and accommodated for killing. They learn or believe that they learn, that it is acceptable to kill because they were praised for it in the military. Serial killers want accreditation for the work that they have done.<a href="#cite_note-Exploring-164">[164]</a>

In both military and serial killing, the offender or the soldier may become desensitized to killing as well as compartmentalized; the soldiers do not see enemy personnel as "human" and neither do serial killers see their victims as humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamamoto2002105–120-165">[165]</a> The theories do not imply that military institutions make a deliberate effort to produce serial killers; to the contrary, all military personnel are trained to recognize when, where, and against whom it is appropriate to use deadly force, which starts with the basic <a href="Laws_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of war">Law of Land Warfare</a>, taught during the <a href="Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">initial training phase</a>, and may include more stringent policies for military personnel in law enforcement or security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood1992-166">[166]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Investigation">Investigation</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="FBI:_Issues_and_practices">FBI: Issues and practices</h3></div>

In 2008, the FBI published a handbook titled Serial Murder which was the product of a symposium held in 2005 to bring together the many issues surrounding serial murder, including its investigation.<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Identification">Identification</h4></div>

According to the FBI, identifying one, or multiple, murders as being the work of a serial killer is the first challenge an investigation faces, especially if the victim(s) come from a marginalized or high-risk population and is normally linked through forensic or behavioral evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a> Should the cases cross multiple jurisdictions, the law enforcement system in the United States is fragmented and thus not configured to detect multiple similar murders across a large geographic area.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a> Ted Bundy was particularly famous for such geographic exploitations. He used his knowledge about the lack of communication between multiple jurisdictions to avoid arrest and detection.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The FBI suggests utilizing databases and increasing interdepartmental communication. Keppel suggests holding multi-jurisdictional conferences regularly to compare cases giving departments a greater chance to detect linked cases and overcome linkage blindness.<a href="#cite_note-keppel1990-170">[170]</a>

One collaboration, the Serial Homicide Expertise and Information Sharing Collaborative, was formed in 2010 and made serial murder data widely accessible after multiple experts combined their databases to aid in research and investigation.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Another collaboration, the Radford/FGCU Serial Killer Database Project<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> was proposed at the 2012 <a href="International_Association_for_Identification" title="International Association for Identification">FDIAI</a> Annual Conference.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Utilizing <a href="Radford_University" title="Radford University">Radford</a>'s Serial Killer Database as a starting point, the new collaboration,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> hosted by <a href="Florida_Gulf_Coast_University" title="Florida Gulf Coast University">FGCU</a> Justice Studies, has invited and is working in conjunction with other universities to maintain and expand the scope of the database to also include <a href="Spree_killer" title="Spree killer">spree</a> and <a href="Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murders</a>. Utilizing over 170 data points, multiple-murderer <a href="Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> and <a href="Victimology" title="Victimology">victimology</a>; researchers and Law Enforcement Agencies can build <a href="Case_study" title="Case study">case studies</a> and statistical profiles to further research the Who, What, Why and How of these types of crimes.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Leadership">Leadership</h4></div>

Leadership, or administration, should play a small or virtually non-existent role in the actual investigation past assigning knowledgeable or experienced homicide investigators to lead positions. The administration's role is not to run the investigation but to establish and reaffirm the primary goal of catching the serial killer, as well as provide support for the investigators. The FBI (2008) suggests completing Memorandums of Understanding to facilitate support and commitment of resources from different jurisdictions to an investigation.<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a> Egger takes this one step further and suggests completing mutual aid pacts, which are written agreements to provide support to each other in a time of need, with surrounding jurisdictions. Doing this in advance would save time and resources that could be used on the investigation.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organization">Organization</h4></div>

The structural organization of an investigation is key to its success, as demonstrated by the investigation of <a href="Gary_Ridgway" title="Gary Ridgway">Gary Ridgway</a>, the Green River Killer. Once a serial murder case was established, a task force was created to track down and arrest the offender. Over the course of the investigation, for various reasons, the task force's organization was radically changed and reorganized multiple times – at one point including more than 50 full-time personnel, and at another, only a single investigator. Eventually, what led to the end of the investigation was a conference of 25 detectives organized to share ideas to solve the case.<a href="#cite_note-guillen2007-175">[175]</a>

The FBI handbook provides a description of how a task force should be organized but offers no additional options on how to structure the investigation. While it appears advantageous to have a full-time staff assigned to a serial murder investigation, it can become prohibitively expensive. For example, the Green River Task Force cost upwards of $2 million per year,<a href="#cite_note-guillen2007-175">[175]</a> and as was witnessed with the Green River Killer investigation, other strategies can prevail where a task force fails. A common strategy, already employed by many departments for other reasons, is the conference, in which departments get together and focus on a specific set of topics.<a href="#cite_note-egger1990-176">[176]</a> With serial murders, the focus is typically on unsolved cases, with evidence thought to be related to the case at hand.

Similar to a conference is an information clearing-house in which a jurisdiction with a suspected serial murder case collects all of its evidence and actively seeks data that may be related from other jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-egger1990-176">[176]</a> By collecting all of the related information into one place, they provide a central point in which it can be organized and easily accessed by other jurisdictions working toward the goal of arresting an offender and ending the murders. A task force provides for a flexible, organized, framework for jurisdictions depending on the needs of the investigation. Unfortunately due to the need to commit resources (manpower, money, equipment, etc.) for long periods of time it can be an unsustainable option.<a href="#cite_note-egger1990-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-keppel1990-170">[170]</a>

In the case of the investigation of Aileen Wournos, the Marion County Sheriff coordinated multiple agencies without any written or formal agreement.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a> While not a specific strategy for a serial murder investigation, this is certainly a best practice in so far as the agencies were able to work easily together toward a common goal. Finally, once a serial murder investigation has been identified, the use of an FBI Rapid Response Team can assist both experienced and inexperienced jurisdictions in setting up a task force. This is completed by organizing and delegating jobs, by compiling and analyzing clues, and by establishing communication between the parties involved.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Resource_augmentation">Resource augmentation</h4></div>

During the course of a serial murder investigation, it may become necessary to call in additional resources; the FBI defines this as Resource Augmentation. Within the structure of a task force, the addition of a resource should be thought of as either long-term or short-term. If the task force's framework is expanded to include the new resource, then it should be permanent and not removed. For short-term needs, such as setting up roadblocks or canvassing a neighborhood, additional resources should be called in on a short-term basis. The decision of whether resources are needed short or long term should be left to the lead investigator and facilitated by the administration.<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a>

The confusion and counter productiveness created by changing the structure of a task force mid investigation is illustrated by the way the Green River Task Force's staffing and structure was changed multiple times throughout the investigation. This made an already complicated situation more difficult, resulting in the delay or loss of information, which allowed Ridgway to continue killing.<a href="#cite_note-guillen2007-175">[175]</a> The FBI model does not take into account that permanently expanding a task force, or investigative structure, may not be possible due to cost or personnel availability. Egger (1998) offers several alternative strategies including; using investigative consultants, or experienced staff to augment an investigative team. Not all departments have investigators experienced in serial murder and by temporarily bringing in consultants, they can educate a department to a level of competence then step out. This would reduce the initially established framework of the investigation team and save the department the cost of retaining the consultants until the conclusion of the investigation.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communication">Communication</h4></div>

The FBI handbook (2008) and Keppel (1989) both stress communication as paramount. The difference is that the FBI handbook concentrates primarily on communication within a task force, while Keppel makes getting information out to and allowing information to be passed back from patrol officers a priority.<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-keppel1990-170">[170]</a> The FBI handbook suggests having daily e-mail or in-person briefings for all staff involved in the investigation and providing periodic summary briefings to patrol officers and managers. Looking back on a majority of serial murderer arrests, most are exercised by patrol officers in the course of their everyday duties and unrelated to the ongoing serial murder investigation.<a href="#cite_note-egger1998-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-keppel1990-170">[170]</a>

Keppel provides examples of Larry Eyler, who was arrested during a traffic stop for a parking violation, and Ted Bundy, who was arrested during a traffic stop for operating a stolen vehicle.<a href="#cite_note-keppel1990-170">[170]</a> In each case, it was uniformed officers, not directly involved in the investigation, who knew what to look for and took the direct action that stopped the killer. By providing up-to-date (as opposed to periodic) briefings and information to officers on the street the chances of catching a serial killer, or finding solid leads, are increased.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Data_management">Data management</h4></div>

A serial murder investigation generates staggering amounts of data, all of which needs to be reviewed and analyzed. A standardized method of documenting and distributing information must be established and investigators must be allowed time to complete reports while investigating leads and at the end of a shift (FBI 2008).<a href="#cite_note-FBI-2010-167">[167]</a> When the mechanism for data management is insufficient, leads are not only lost or buried but the investigation can be hindered and new information can become difficult to obtain or become corrupted.<a href="#cite_note-guillen2007-175">[175]</a>

During the Green River Killer investigation, reporters would often find and interview possible victims or witnesses ahead of investigators. The understaffed investigation was unable to keep up the information flow, which prevented them from promptly responding to leads. To make matters worse, investigators believed that the journalists, untrained in interviewing victims or witnesses of crimes, would corrupt the information and result in unreliable leads.<a href="#cite_note-guillen2007-175">[175]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memorabilia">Memorabilia</h2></div>

Notorious and infamous serial killers number in the thousands and a subculture revolves around their legacies.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> That subculture includes the collection, sale, and display of serial killer memorabilia, dubbed "<a href="Murderabilia" title="Murderabilia">murderabilia</a>" by Andrew Kahan, one of the best-known opponents of collectors of serial killer remnants. Kahan is the director of the Mayor's Crime Victims Office in Houston. He is backed by the families of murder victims and "<a href="Son_of_Sam_law" title="Son of Sam law">Son of Sam laws</a>" existing in some states that prevent murderers from profiting from the publicity generated by their crimes.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsland-178">[178]</a>

Such memorabilia includes the paintings, writings, and poems of these killers.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Recently, marketing has capitalized even more upon interest in serial killers with the rise of various merchandise such as <a href="Trading_card" title="Trading card">trading cards</a>, <a href="Action_figure" title="Action figure">action figures</a>, and books. Some serial killers attain celebrity status in the way they acquire fans and may have previous personal possessions auctioned off on websites like <a href="EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a>. A few examples of this are <a href="Ed_Gein" title="Ed Gein">Ed Gein</a>'s 150-pound stolen gravestone and <a href="Bobby_Joe_Long" title="Bobby Joe Long">Bobby Joe Long</a>'s sunglasses.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Serial_crime" title="Serial crime">Serial crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_rapist" title="Serial rapist">Serial rapist</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_serial_killers_by_country" title="List of serial killers by country">List of serial killers by country</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_serial_killers_by_number_of_victims" title="List of serial killers by number of victims">List of serial killers by number of victims</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_songs_about_or_referencing_serial_killers" title="List of songs about or referencing serial killers">List of songs about or referencing serial killers</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Most_common-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Most_common_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Most_common_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Most_common_1-2">c</a> An offender can be anyone:

<ul><li><a href="#CITEREFHolmesHolmes1998">Holmes & Holmes 1998</a>, Serial murder is the killing of three or more people over a period of more than 30 days, with a significant cooling-off period between the murders The baseline number of three victims appears to be most common among those who are the academic authorities in the field. The time frame also appears to be an agreed-upon component of the definition.</li>

<li><a href="#CITEREFPetherick2005">Petherick 2005</a>, p. 190 Three killings seem to be required in the most popular definition of serial killing since they are enough to provide a pattern within the killings without being overly restrictive.</li>

<li><a href="#CITEREFFlowers2012">Flowers 2012</a>, p. 195 In general, most experts on serial murder require that a minimum of three murders be committed at different times and usually different places for a person to qualify as a serial killer.</li>

<li><a href="#CITEREFSchechter2012">Schechter 2012</a>, p. 73 Most experts seem to agree, however, that to qualify as a serial killer, an individual has to slay a minimum of three unrelated victims.</li>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/serial-murder#two">"Definition of Serial Murder"</a>. <a href="Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>. Retrieved August 20, 2024.</cite> (This source only requires two people)</li></ul>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurkhalter_Chmelir2003">Burkhalter Chmelir 2003</a>, p. 1, <a href="#CITEREFMorton2005">Morton 2005</a>, pp. 4, 9

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeberth1995?_"The_base_population_was_387_serial_murderers,_who_killed_(under_various_motivations),_three_or_more_persons_over_a_period_of_time_with_cooling-off_periods_between_the_events._The_author_identified_232_male_serial_murderers_who_violated_their_victims_sexually"-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeberth1995?_"The_base_population_was_387_serial_murderers,_who_killed_(under_various_motivations),_three_or_more_persons_over_a_period_of_time_with_cooling-off_periods_between_the_events._The_author_identified_232_male_serial_murderers_who_violated_their_victims_sexually"_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeberth1995">Geberth 1995</a>, p. ? "The base population was 387 serial murderers, who killed (under various motivations), three or more persons over a period of time with cooling-off periods between the events. The author identified 232 male serial murderers who violated their victims sexually".

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton20054,_9-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton20054,_9_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorton2005">Morton 2005</a>, pp. 4, 9.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tick-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tick_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tick_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tick_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tick_5-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFScott" class="citation web cs1">Scott, Shirley Lynn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100728094415/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/notorious/tick/victims_1.html">"What Makes Serial Killers Tick?"</a>. <a href="TruTV" title="TruTV">truTV</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/notorious/tick/victims_1.html">the original</a> on July 28, 2010. Retrieved January 9, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/serial-murder">"Serial Murder"</a>. <a href="Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>. Retrieved August 20, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFResslerSchachtman1993">Ressler & Schachtman 1993</a>, p. 29, <a href="#CITEREFSchechter2003">Schechter 2003</a>, p. 5

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERule2004225-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERule2004225_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRule2004">Rule 2004</a>, p. 225.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGennat19307,_27–32,_49–54,_79–82-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGennat19307,_27–32,_49–54,_79–82_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGennat1930">Gennat 1930</a>, pp. 7, 27–32, 49–54, 79–82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-=Vronsky-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-=Vronsky_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-=Vronsky_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2004">Vronsky 2004</a>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1">"Review: The Meaning of Murder". <a href="The_Washington_Star" title="The Washington Star">Evening Star</a>. Washington, D.C. May 30, 1967. p. 12, col. 4.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky2013-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVronsky2013_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2013">Vronsky 2013</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetherick2005190-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetherick2005190_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetherick2005">Petherick 2005</a>, p. 190.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlowers2012195-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlowers2012195_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlowers2012">Flowers 2012</a>, p. 195.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-fbi.gov-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fbi.gov_15-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorton2005">Morton 2005</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Fuller, John R. & Hickey, Eric W.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EnxHAAAAMAAJ">Controversial Issues in Criminology</a>; Allyn and Bacon, 1999. p. 36.

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<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFYaksic2018" class="citation journal cs1">Yaksic, Enzo (November 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178918300235">"The folly of counting bodies: Using regression to transgress the state of serial murder classification systems"</a>. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 43: 26–32. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.avb.2018.08.007">10.1016/j.avb.2018.08.007</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1359-1789">1359-1789</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJarmo_Haapalainen2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jarmo Haapalainen (2007). Twelve murders in five weeks, Heinola's "beast" Finnish record (in Finnish). Heinola. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-952-99946-0-1</bdi>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010107-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2010107_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2010">Hickey 2010</a>, p. 107.

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<li id="cite_note-March_of_Dimes-74"><a href="#cite_ref-March_of_Dimes_74-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRobinson,_ArthurLubs,_Herbert_A.Bergsma,_Daniel1979" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Arthur; Lubs, Herbert A.; Bergsma, Daniel, eds. (1979). Sex chromosome aneuploidy: prospective studies on children. Birth defects original article series 15 (1). New York: <a href="John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">Alan R. Liss</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8451-1024-9</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiannangelo199633-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiannangelo199633_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiannangelo1996">Giannangelo 1996</a>, p. 33.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200499–100-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVronsky200499–100_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2004">Vronsky 2004</a>, pp. 99–100.

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<li id="cite_note-PerperCina2010-79"><a href="#cite_ref-PerperCina2010_79-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJoshua_A._PerperStephen_J._Cina2010" class="citation book cs1">Joshua A. Perper; Stephen J. Cina (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WWJUGMh2OhcC&pg=PA51">When Doctors Kill: Who, Why, and How</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 51. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4419-1371-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053206/https://books.google.com/books?id=WWJUGMh2OhcC&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 1, 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993113-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993113_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResslerSchachtman1993113_81-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFResslerSchachtman1993">Ressler & Schachtman 1993</a>, p. 113.

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<li id="cite_note-radfordfgcudb-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-radfordfgcudb_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-radfordfgcudb_82-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342501023">"Serial Killer Statistics"</a>. Retrieved March 1, 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Serial_Killers-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Serial_Killers_83-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090309132810/http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/serial-killers">"Serial Killers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/serial-killers">the original</a> on March 9, 2009. Retrieved May 21, 2009.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2010">Hickey 2010</a>, p. 142

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<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWires2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wires, Linda (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081218133027/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/angels/index.html">"Angels of Death"</a>. New Scientist. 225 (3007): 40–43. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NewSc.225...40W">2015NewSc.225...40W</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0262-4079%2815%2960268-8">10.1016/S0262-4079(15)60268-8</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/angels/index.html">the original</a> on December 18, 2008. Retrieved December 30, 2008.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes1998204-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesHolmes1998204_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolmesHolmes1998">Holmes & Holmes 1998</a>, p. 204.

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<li id="cite_note-Female_Lust_Kill-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Female_Lust_Kill_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Female_Lust_Kill_87-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFRamsland2007" class="citation web cs1">Ramsland, Katherine (March 22, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100829110653/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1613/is_1_16/ai_n29335603/">"When Women Kill Together"</a>. The Forensic Examiner. American College of Forensic Examiners Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1613/is_1_16/ai_n29335603/">the original</a> on August 29, 2010. Retrieved August 2, 2009.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-biography.com-2012-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com-2012_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com-2012_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com-2012_88-2">c</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120603170851/http://www.biography.com/people/genene-jones-235417">"Genene Jones Biography"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biography.com/people/genene-jones-235417#criminal-background">the original</a> on June 3, 2012.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.com/crime/texas-hospital-nurse-serial-killer-murdered-patients-with-ivs/">"Murder in the ICU: Inside the Twisted Case of a Hospital Nurse Who Turned Out To Be a Serial Killer"</a>. Peoplemag. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220412123130/https://people.com/crime/texas-hospital-nurse-serial-killer-murdered-patients-with-ivs/">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/most-prolific-murder-partnership">"Most prolific murder partnership"</a>. <a href="Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a>. Retrieved April 9, 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Kelleher_1998_12-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kelleher_1998_12_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelleher_1998_12_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelleherKelleher1998">Kelleher & Kelleher 1998</a>, p. 12, <a href="#CITEREFWilsonHilton1998">Wilson & Hilton 1998</a>, pp. 495–498, <a href="#CITEREFFreiVöllmGrafDittmann2006">Frei et al. 2006</a>, pp. 167–176

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2010">Hickey 2010</a>, pp. 187, 257, 266, <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2007">Vronsky 2007</a>, p. 9, <a href="#CITEREFFarrellKeppelTitterington2011">Farrell, Keppel & Titterington 2011</a>, pp. 228–252

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Farrell-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Farrell_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFarrellKeppelTitterington2011">Farrell, Keppel & Titterington 2011</a>, pp. 228–252

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-94"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewton2006">Newton 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Frei-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frei_95-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreiVöllmGrafDittmann2006">Frei et al. 2006</a>, pp. 167–176

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilsonHilton1998">Wilson & Hilton 1998</a>, pp. 495–498, <a href="#CITEREFFreiVöllmGrafDittmann2006">Frei et al. 2006</a>, pp. 167–176, <a href="#CITEREFHolmesHolmes1998">Holmes & Holmes 1998</a>, p. 171, <a href="#CITEREFNewton2006">Newton 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2007">Vronsky 2007</a>, pp. 1, 42–43, <a href="#CITEREFSchechter2003">Schechter 2003</a>, p. 312

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchechter2003">Schechter 2003</a>, p. 31, <a href="#CITEREFFoxLevin2005">Fox & Levin 2005</a>, p. 117

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmid2005">Schmid 2005</a>, p. 231, <a href="#CITEREFArrigoGriffin2004">Arrigo & Griffin 2004</a>, pp. 375–393

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200741-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVronsky200741_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2007">Vronsky 2007</a>, p. 41.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010267-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2010267_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2010">Hickey 2010</a>, p. 267.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wilson_1998_495–498-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1998_495–498_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1998_495–498_103-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilsonHilton1998">Wilson & Hilton 1998</a>, pp. 495–498

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2010265-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2010265_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2010">Hickey 2010</a>, p. 265.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrisonMurphyHoBowers2015383–406-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrisonMurphyHoBowers2015383–406_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarrisonMurphyHoBowers2015">Harrison et al.</a>, pp. 383–406.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky2007-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVronsky2007_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2007">Vronsky 2007</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130215231752/http://www.erichickey.com/">Eric W. Hickey</a>, (2010).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYardleyWilson20151–26-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYardleyWilson20151–26_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYardleyWilson2015">Yardley & Wilson 2015</a>, pp. 1–26.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVronsky200773-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVronsky200773_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVronsky2007">Vronsky 2007</a>, p. 73.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Perri-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perri_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perri_110-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPerriLichtenwald2010">Perri & Lichtenwald 2010</a>, pp. 50–67

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby2009-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirby2009_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirby2009">Kirby 2009</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/shadow-boxing/201207/youngest-serial-killer-death-row">"Youngest Serial Killer on Death Row"</a>. Psychology Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053024/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/shadow-boxing/201207/youngest-serial-killer-death-row">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved March 2, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teenkillers.org/juvenile-lifers/offenders-cases-state/pennsylvania-offenders/harvey-robinson/">"Harvey Robinson"</a>. National Organization of Victims of Juvenile Murderers. January 21, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220517172407/https://teenkillers.org/juvenile-lifers/offenders-cases-state/pennsylvania-offenders/harvey-robinson/">Archived</a> from the original on May 17, 2022. Retrieved March 27, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLoweryKnowlesBerman2020" class="citation news cs1">Lowery, Wesley; Knowles, Hannah; Berman, Mark (November 30, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/national/samuel-little-serial-killer/part-one/">"How America's deadliest serial killer went undetected for four decades"</a>. <a href="The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201203025501/https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/national/samuel-little-serial-killer/part-one/">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2020.</cite> Indifferent Justice Part 1: The Perfect Victim

</li>

<li id="cite_note-y076-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-y076_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-y076_115-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFWalshJorgensen2019" class="citation book cs1">Walsh, A.; Jorgensen, C. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W-LFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT291">Criminology: The Essentials</a>. Sage Publications. p. 291. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5443-7539-7</bdi>. Retrieved May 21, 2024.</cite> "The reality is that white males are very much underrepresented among serial killers in proportion to their numbers in the population. Hickey (2006) claims that about 44% of serial killers operating from 1995 to 2004 have been African American, which is about 3.4 times greater than expected by the proportion of African Americans in the population. More recently, the Radford University's Serial Killer Information Center (Aamodt, 2016) found that since 2000 African Americans have been 59.8% of serial killers in the United States, whites 30.8%, Hispanics 6.7%, and Asian Americans 0.1%."

</li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFGraysmith2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Robert_Graysmith" title="Robert Graysmith">Graysmith, Robert</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zodiac00gray">Zodiac</a> (Reissue ed.). <a href="Berkley_Books" title="Berkley Books">Berkley</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-425-21218-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuillen2007" class="citation book cs1">Guillen, Tomas (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QJnyAAAAMAAJ">Serial Killers: Issues Explored Through the Green River Murders</a>. Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780131529663</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053115/https://books.google.com/books?id=QJnyAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHamamoto2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hamamoto, D (2002). "Empire of death: militarized society and the rise of serial killing and mass murder". New Political Science. 24 (1): 105–120. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07393140220122662">10.1080/07393140220122662</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145617529">145617529</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHarrisonMurphyHoBowers2015" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, Marissa A.; Murphy, Erin A.; Ho, Lavina Y.; Bowers, Thomas G.; Flaherty, Claire V. (2015). "Female serial killers in the United States: means, motives, and makings". The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. 26 (3): 383–406. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14789949.2015.1007516">10.1080/14789949.2015.1007516</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145149823">145149823</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHasselt1999" class="citation book cs1">Hasselt, V. B. Van (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K4v-xqq4SmsC&pg=PP1">Handbook of psychological approaches with violent offenders: Contemporary strategies and issues</a>. Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780306458453</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053044/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4v-xqq4SmsC&lpg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHale1993" class="citation journal cs1">Hale, Robert L. (January 9, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225783432">"The Application of Learning Theory to Serial Murder or 'You Too Can Learn to be a Serial Killer'"</a>. American Journal of Criminal Justice. 17 (2): 37–45. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02885952">10.1007/BF02885952</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144186286">144186286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181003061744/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225783432">Archived</a> from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 1, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHowardSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Amanda; Smith, Martin (2004). River of Blood: Serial Killers and Their Victims. Universal. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58112-518-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHickey2010" class="citation book cs1">Hickey, Eric W. (2010). Serial murderers and their victims. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHolmes2010" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Holmes, Stephen T. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serialmurder0000holm_c5e3">Serial murder</a> (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Sage, California. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4129-7442-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHolmes1998" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Holmes, Stephen T. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ol24tui7vo8C&pg=PP1">Serial Murder</a> (Second ed.). <a href="SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7619-1367-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063506/https://books.google.com/books?id=ol24tui7vo8C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHolmes2000" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M; Holmes, Stephen T (2000). Mass murder in the United States. Prentice Hall. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-934308-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHolmes2001" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Holmes, Stephen T. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_zqOsZSZxYQC&pg=PP1">Sex Crimes: Patterns and Behavior</a> (Second ed.). Sage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7619-2417-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200309233442/https://books.google.com/books?id=_zqOsZSZxYQC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on March 9, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesHolmes2002" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Holmes, Stephen T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2uYI0C_AXkC&pg=PP1">Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool</a>. Sage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7619-2594-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=a2uYI0C_AXkC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFKeppel2000" class="citation book cs1">Keppel, Robert D. (2000). Serial Murder: Future Implications for Police Investigations. Authorlink Pr. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781928704188</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFMyersMcElroyBurtonRecoppa1993" class="citation journal cs1">Myers, Wade C.; McElroy, Ross; Burton, Karen; Recoppa, Lawrence (1993). "Malignant Sex and Aggression: An Overview of Serial Sexual Homicide". Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 21 (4): 435–451. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8054674">8054674</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFPeckDolche2000" class="citation book cs1">Peck, Dennis L.; Dolche, Norman Allan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rDBqd3zKGoYC&pg=PP1">Extraordinary Behavior: A Case Study Approach to Understanding Social Problems</a>. Greenwood. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-275-97057-4</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063457/https://books.google.com/books?id=rDBqd3zKGoYC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFQian1993" class="citation book cs1">Qian, Sima (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDDLb8LjlNAC&pg=PP1">"Han Dynasty"</a>. Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty. Vol. I (Revised ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-231-08164-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063511/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDDLb8LjlNAC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFResslerSchachtman1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Robert_Ressler" title="Robert Ressler">Ressler, Robert K.</a>; Schachtman, Thomas (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whoeverfightsmo00ress">Whoever Fights Monsters: My Twenty Years Tracking Serial Killers for the FBI</a>. New York: <a href="Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>/<a href="St._Martin's_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-312-95044-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRubinstein2004" class="citation book cs1">Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC">Genocide: A History</a>. Pearson Longman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780582506015</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910110549/https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC">Archived</a> from the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved February 27, 2016.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFSchechter2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Harold_Schechter" title="Harold Schechter">Schechter, Harold</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qroGXAa-wIC&pg=PP1">The Serial Killer Files: The Who, What, Where, How, and Why of the World's Most Terrifying Murderers</a>. <a href="Ballantine_Books" title="Ballantine Books">Ballantine Books</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-345-47200-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063514/https://books.google.com/books?id=5qroGXAa-wIC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchechter2012" class="citation book cs1">Schechter, Harold (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zM7ROzJPK2MC&pg=PA73">The A to Z Encyclopedia of Serial Killers</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781439138854</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160901231854/https://books.google.com/books?id=zM7ROzJPK2MC&pg=PA73">Archived</a> from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger2000" class="citation book cs1">Schlesinger, Louis B. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Serial_Offenders_Current_Thought_Recent_Findings">Serial Offenders: Current Thought, Recent Findings</a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8493-2236-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchmid2005" class="citation book cs1">Schmid, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a_GwiSGfZFoC&pg=PP1">Natural Born Celebrities: Serial Killers in American Culture</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-73867-3</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063506/https://books.google.com/books?id=a_GwiSGfZFoC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSitpond2000" class="citation book cs1">Sitpond, M. (2000). Addicted to murder: The true story of Dr Harold Shipman. Virgin Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7535-0445-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSilvaLeongFerrari2004" class="citation journal cs1">Silva, J. Arturo; Leong, Gregory B.; Ferrari, Michelle M. (2004). "A neuropsychiatric developmental model of serial homicidal behavior". Behavioral Sciences & the Law. 22 (6): 787–799. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbsl.620">10.1002/bsl.620</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15568202">15568202</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSingerHensley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Singer, S.D; Hensley, C (2004). "Learning theory to childhood and adolescent fire-setting: Can it lead to serial murder". International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 48 (4): 461–476. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0306624X04265087">10.1177/0306624X04265087</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15245657">15245657</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5991918">5991918</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSkeemPolaschekPatrickLilienfeld2011" class="citation journal cs1">Skeem, J. L.; Polaschek, D. L. L.; Patrick, C. J.; Lilienfeld, S. O. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/pspi/psychopathy.html">"Psychopathic Personality: Bridging the Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Public Policy"</a>. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 12 (3): 95–162. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1529100611426706">10.1177/1529100611426706</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26167886">26167886</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8521465">8521465</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160222023333/http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/pspi/psychopathy.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 22, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2014.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTithecott1997" class="citation book cs1">Tithecott, R (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9E9navv807cC&pg=PP1">Of Men and Monsters: Jeffrey Dahmer and the Construction of the Serial Killer</a>. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-299-15680-0</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063520/https://books.google.com/books?id=9E9navv807cC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVronsky2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Peter_Vronsky" title="Peter Vronsky">Vronsky, Peter</a> (2004). Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters. <a href="Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin Group</a>/Berkley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-425-19640-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVronsky2007" class="citation book cs1">Vronsky, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lff8T6YnG10C">Female Serial Killers: How and Why Women Become Monsters</a>. New York: Berkley Publishing Group. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-425-21390-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063521/https://books.google.com/books?id=lff8T6YnG10C">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2016.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVronsky2013" class="citation book cs1">Vronsky, Peter (2013). "Serial Killer Zombie Apocalypse and the Dawn of the Less Dead: An Introduction to Sexual Serial Murder Today", in Serial Killers: True Crime Anthology 2014. RJ Parker Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1494325893</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2005" class="citation journal cs1">Walsh, Anthony (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/crimjust_facpubs/113/">"African Americans and Serial Killing in the Media"</a>. Homicide Studies. 9 (4): 271–291. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1088767905280080">10.1177/1088767905280080</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1088-7679">1088-7679</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143399844">143399844</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063509/https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/crimjust_facpubs/113/">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved October 2, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhittleRitchie2000" class="citation book cs1">Whittle, Brian; Ritchie, Jean (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prescriptionform0000whit">Prescription for Murder: The True Story of Mass Murderer Dr Harold Frederick Shipman</a>. Warner. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780751529982</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilsonHilton1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, W.; Hilton, T. (1998). "Modus operandi of female serial killers". Psychological Reports. 82 (2): 495–498. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2466%2FPR0.82.2.495-498">10.2466/PR0.82.2.495-498</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9621726">9621726</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilsonSeaman1992" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Colin; Seaman, Donald (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GeR9QgAACAAJ">The Serial Killers: A Study in the Psychology of Violence</a>. True Crime. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780863696152</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053120/https://books.google.com/books?id=GeR9QgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWoodheadSloggettBrayBradbury2009" class="citation journal cs1">Woodhead, Charlotte; Sloggett; Bray, Issy; Bradbury, Jason; McManus, Sally; Meltzer, Howard; Brugha, Terry; Jenkins, Rachel; Greenberg, Neil; Wessely, Simon; Fear, Nicola (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpt.2009.47">"An Estimate of the Veteran Population in England: Based on data from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey"</a>. Population Trends. 138 (1): 50–54. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpt.2009.47">10.1057/pt.2009.47</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20120251">20120251</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8483631">8483631</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWoodsBaddeley2009" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Paul; Baddeley, Gavin (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5JfPgAACAAJ">Saucy Jack: The Elusive Ripper</a>. Ian Allan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780711034105</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053056/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5JfPgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYardleyWilson2015" class="citation book cs1">Yardley, Elizabeth; Wilson, David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wCu4nQAACAAJ">Female Serial Killers in Social Context: Criminological Institutionalism and the Case of Mary Ann Cotton</a>. Policy Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781447327639</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120053123/https://books.google.com/books?id=wCu4nQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBorgesonKristen_Kuehnle2010" class="citation book cs1">Borgeson; Kristen Kuehnle (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V-QteCtDSswC">Serial Offenders: Theory and Practice</a>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7637-7730-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063457/https://books.google.com/books?id=V-QteCtDSswC">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBradyColin_Wilson_(Introduction)Peter_Sotos_(Afterword)2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Moors_murders#Ian_Brady" title="Moors murders">Brady, Ian</a>; <a href="Colin_Wilson" title="Colin Wilson">Colin Wilson</a> (Introduction); <a href="Peter_Sotos" title="Peter Sotos">Peter Sotos</a> (Afterword) (2001). The Gates of Janus: Serial Killing and Its Analysis. <a href="Feral_House" title="Feral House">Feral House</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0922915736</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDouglasMark_Olshaker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_E._Douglas" title="John E. Douglas">Douglas, John</a>; <a href="Mark_Olshaker" title="Mark Olshaker">Mark Olshaker</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CFo6GM5i-W0C&pg=PP1">Journey into Darkness</a>. Pocket Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-671-00394-4</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819023811/https://books.google.com/books?id=CFo6GM5i-W0C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDouglasMark_Olshaker1997" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, John; Mark Olshaker (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bgj6kXeIgYMC&pg=PP1">Mind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit</a>. Pocket Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-671-01375-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160902195047/https://books.google.com/books?id=bgj6kXeIgYMC&lpg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDouglasAllen_G._BurgessRobert_K._ResslerAnn_W._Burgess2006" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, John E.; Allen G. Burgess; Robert K. Ressler; Ann W. Burgess (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2IprmNStlAwC&pg=PP1">Crime Classification Manual: A Standard System for Investigating and Classifying Violent Crimes</a> (Second ed.). Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7879-8501-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063505/https://books.google.com/books?id=2IprmNStlAwC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHaggerty2009" class="citation journal cs1">Haggerty, Kevin D. (2009). "Crime, Media, Culture: Modern Serial Killer". Crime, Media, Culture. 5 (2): 1–21. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1741659009335714">10.1177/1741659009335714</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11395289">11395289</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesStephen_T._Holmes1998" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Stephen T. Holmes (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0yfoJz6jHwkC&pg=PP1">Contemporary Perspectives on Serial Murder</a>. SAGE Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7619-1421-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818163408/https://books.google.com/books?id=0yfoJz6jHwkC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on August 18, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHolmesStephen_T._Holmes2000" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Ronald M.; Stephen T. Holmes (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WC6OFOW4a6wC&pg=PP1">Murder in America</a> (Second ed.). <a href="SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7619-2092-2</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063509/https://books.google.com/books?id=WC6OFOW4a6wC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJensen2014" class="citation book cs1">Jensen, Sybil (2014). Top 10 American Serial Killers:Inside The Minds of Psychopaths. Haselton Media Group. <a href="ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00KGDUJ2U">B00KGDUJ2U</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKiam2013" class="citation book cs1">Kiam, O.M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Second-One-serial-killers-account-ebook/dp/B00HJTQRW0/">The Second One: A Serial Killer's Account of His First Two Kills</a>. Milford Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063457/https://www.amazon.com/Second-One-serial-killers-account-ebook/dp/B00HJTQRW0">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved September 11, 2017.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLane2006" class="citation book cs1">Lane, Brian (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DwNVbOcTncwC&pg=PP1">The New Encyclopedia of Serial Killers</a> (2nd ed.). Facts on File. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0816061952</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063505/https://books.google.com/books?id=DwNVbOcTncwC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLeyton1986" class="citation book cs1">Leyton, Elliott (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZV8OstrJKn0C&pg=PA1">Hunting Humans: The Rise of the Modern Multiple Murderer</a>. <a href="McClelland_%26_Stewart" title="McClelland & Stewart">McClelland & Stewart</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7710-5025-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063510/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZV8OstrJKn0C&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLukin2013" class="citation book cs1">Lukin, Grigory (2013). Madmen's Manifestos: Chris Dorner, Charles Manson, Timothy McVeigh and others. <a href="ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00BM5L2HW">B00BM5L2HW</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald1963" class="citation journal cs1">MacDonald, J. M (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303093153/http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=149172">"The threat to kill"</a>. American Journal of Psychiatry. 120 (2). American Psychiatric Association: 125–130. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.120.2.125">10.1176/ajp.120.2.125</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=149172">the original</a> on March 3, 2014. Retrieved May 31, 2011.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNewitz2006" class="citation book cs1">Newitz, Annalee (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ySly2TdG-w8C&pg=PP1">Pretend We're Dead: Capitalist Monsters in American Pop Culture</a>. Duke University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8223-3745-4</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063520/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySly2TdG-w8C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNorris1990" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Joel (1990). Serial Killers: The Growing Menace. Arrow Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-09-971750-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPanzram2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Carl_Panzram" title="Carl Panzram">Panzram, Carl</a> (2002) [1970]. <a href="Thomas_E._Gaddis" title="Thomas E. Gaddis">Gaddis, Thomas E.</a>; Long, James O. (eds.). <a href="Killer%3A_A_Journal_of_Murder" title="Killer: A Journal of Murder">Killer: A Journal of Murder</a>. Amok Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRamsland2007" class="citation book cs1">Ramsland, Katherine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i4PjlaAOEHEC&pg=PR1">Inside the Minds of Healthcare Serial Killers: Why They Kill</a>. Praeger. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-275-99422-8</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063509/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4PjlaAOEHEC&pg=PR1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRamslandKaren_Pepper" class="citation web cs1">Ramsland, Katherine; Karen Pepper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100416034209/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/criminal_mind/psychology/s_k_culture/1.html">"Serial Killer Culture"</a>. Tru.tv Crime Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/criminal_mind/psychology/s_k_culture/1.html">the original</a> on April 16, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2010.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRamslandKaren_Pepper" class="citation web cs1">Ramsland, Katherine; Karen Pepper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100410145929/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/criminal_mind/psychology/s_k_culture/6.html">"Serial Killer Culture"</a>. Tru.tv Crime Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/criminal_mind/psychology/s_k_culture/6.html">the original</a> on April 10, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2010.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReavill2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Gil_Reavill" title="Gil Reavill">Reavill, Gil</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781592402960">Aftermath, Inc.: Cleaning Up After CSI Goes Home</a>. Gotham. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59240-296-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2006" class="citation web cs1">Robinson, Bryan (January 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=91786&page=1">"Serial Killer Action Figures For Sale"</a>. ABC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628194135/http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=91786&page=1">Archived</a> from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved April 1, 2010.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRosner2010" class="citation book cs1">Rosner, Lisa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomymurdersbe00rosn">The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8122-4191-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRoy2002" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Jody M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hcKDXg0bNrEC">Love to Hate: America's Obsession with Hatred and Violence</a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-231-12569-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063459/https://books.google.com/books?id=hcKDXg0bNrEC">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRushby2003" class="citation book cs1">Rushby, Kevin (2003). Children of Kali: Through India in Search of Bandits, the Thug Cult, and the British Raj. Walker & Company. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8027-1418-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSeltzer1998" class="citation book cs1">Seltzer, Mark (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQ-AGFx0hBMC&pg=PP1">Serial Killers: Death and Life in America's Wound Culture</a>. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-91481-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063506/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQ-AGFx0hBMC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2018.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="Peter_Vronsky" title="Peter Vronsky">Vronsky, Peter</a> (2004). Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters. <a href="Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin Group</a>/Berkley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-425-19640-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilson1995" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Colin (1995). A Plague of Murder. Constable & Robinson. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-85487-249-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYudofsky2005" class="citation book cs1">Yudofsky, Stuart C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip3FA7RZUR4C">Fatal Flaws: Navigating Destructive Relationships with People with Disorders of Personality and Character</a>. American Psychiatric Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781585626588</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514063503/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip3FA7RZUR4C">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2016.</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Serial_killers" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Serial killers">Serial killers</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crimelibrary.org/serial_killers/index.html">Crime Library's Serial Killer page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101007204834/http://www.fbi.gov/publications/serial_murder.htm">Serial Murder: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives for Investigators</a> Official FBI publication</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204114902/http://www.alldocumentaries.org/dr-james-fallon-the-brains-of-serial-killers/">James Fallon: The Brains of Serial Killers (Talk)</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q484188#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3016" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q484188#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3016" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1113110">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1184411611">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh95000651">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb125716599">France</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb161750522">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb125716599">BnF data</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb161750522">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph274687&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1059728&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX549050">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007534735105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/035030178">IdRef</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/140430687">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/e3e83993-b41e-41e5-9e68-f6bdb203009d">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Serial_killer&oldid=1303913443">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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